Friction Lab Essay

Discussion and Review Whenever a body slides along another body a resisting force is called into play that is known as friction. This is a very important force and serves many useful purposes. A person could not walk without friction, nor could a car propel itself along a highway without the friction between the tires and the road surface. On the other hand, friction is very wasteful. It reduces the efficiency of machines because work must be done to overcome it and this energy is wasted as heat. The purpose of this experiment is to study the laws of friction and to determine the coefficient of friction between two surfaces. THEORY Friction is the resisting force encountered when one surface slides over another. This force acts along the tangent to the surfaces in contact. The force necessary to overcome friction depends on the nature of the materials in contact, on their roughness or smoothness, and on the normal force but not on the area of contact or on the speed of the motion. We find experimentally that the force of friction is directly proportional to the â€Å"normal force.† When an object is sitting on a horizontal surface the normal force is just the weight of the object. However, if the object is on an incline then it is not equal to the weight but is calculated by N= mg cos ÃŽ ¸. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of friction,  µ. When the contacting surfaces are actually sliding one over the other the force of friction is given by Equation 1: Ffr =  µk FN where Ffr is the force of friction and is directed parallel to the surfaces and opposite to the direction of motion. FN is the normal force and  µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The subscript k stands for kinetic, meaning that  µk is the coefficient that applies when the surfaces are moving  one with respect to the other.  µk is therefore more precisely called the coefficient of kinetic or sliding friction. Note carefully that Ffris always directed opposite to the direction of motion. This means that if you reverse the direction of sliding, the frictional force reverses too. In short, friction is always against you. Friction is called a â€Å"non-conservative† force because energy must be used to overcome it no matter which way you go. This is in contrast to what is called a â€Å"conservative† force such as gravity, which is against you on the way up but with you on the way down. Thus, the energy expended in lifting an object may be regained when the object descends. Yet, the energy used to overcome friction is dissipated, which means it is lost or made unavailable as heat. As you will see in your later study of  physics the distinction between conservative and non-conservative forces is a very important one that is fundamental to our concepts of heat and energy.  A method of checking the proportionality of Ffr, and FNand of determining the proportionality constant  µk is to have one of the surfaces in the form of a plane placed horizontally with a pulley fastened at one end. The other surface is the bottom face of a block that rests on the plane and to which is attached a weighted cord that passes over the pulley. The weights are varied until the block moves at constant speed after having been started with a slight push. Since there is no acceleration, the net force on the block is zero, which means that the frictional force is equal to the tension in the cord. This tension, in turn, is equal to the total weight attached to the cord’s end. The normal force between the two surfaces is equal to the weight of the block and can be increased by placing weights on top of the block. Thus, corresponding values of Ffr,and FN can be found, and plotting them will show whether Ffrand FN are indeed proportional. The slope of this graph gives  µk. When a body lies at rest on a surface and an attempt is made to push it, the pushing force is opposed by a frictional force. As long as the pushing force is not strong enough to start the body moving, the body remains in equilibrium. This means that the frictional force automatically adjusts itself to be equal to the pushing force and thus to just be enough to balance it. However, there is a threshold value of the pushing force beyond which larger values will cause the body to break away and slide. We  conclude that in the static case where a body is at rest the frictional force automatically adjusts itself to keep the body at rest up to a certain maximum. But if static equilibrium demands a frictional force larger than this maximum, static equilibrium conditions will cease to exist because this force is not available and the body will start to move. This situation may be expressed in equation form as: Equation 2: Ffr ≠¤  µsFN or Ffr max =  µsFN Where Ffris the frictional force in the static case, Ffr max is the maximum value this force can assume and  µsis the coefficient of static friction. We find that  µsis slightly larger than  µk. This means that a somewhat larger force is needed to break a body away and start it sliding than is needed to keep it sliding at constant speed once it is in motion. This is why a slight push is necessary to get the block started for the measurement of  µk. One way of investigating the case of static friction is to observe the so-called â€Å"limiting angle of repose.† This is defined as the maximum angle to which an inclined plane may be tipped before a block placed on the plane just starts to slide. The arrangement is illustrated in Figure 1 above. The block has weight W whose component WcosÃŽ ¸ (where ÃŽ ¸ is the plane angle) is perpendicular to the plane and is thus equal to the normal force, FN. The component Wsin ÃŽ ¸is parallel to the plane and constitutes the force urging the block to slide down the plane. It is opposed by the frictional force Ffr, As long as the block remains at rest, Ffr must be equal to W sin ÃŽ ¸. If the plane is tipped up until at some value ÃŽ ¸max the block just starts to slide, we have: Equation 3: But: Hence: Or: Thus, if the plane is gradually tipped up until the block just breaks away and the plane angle is then measured, the coefficient of static friction is equal to the tangent of this angle, which is called the limiting angle of repose. It is interesting to note that W cancelled out in the derivation of Equation 3 so that the weight of the block doesn’t matter. PROCEDURE This experiment requires you to record measurements in Newtons. Remember that in SI units the unit of force is called the Newton (N). One Newton is the force required to impart an acceleration of 1m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg. Thus 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2. You can convert any kg-mass to Newtons by multiplying the kg-weight by 9.8 m/s2, i.e., 100 g = 0.1 kg = 0.1 x 9.8 = .98 N. 1. Determining force of kinetic or sliding friction and static friction a. The wooden blocks provided in the LabPaq are too light to give good readings so you need to put some weight on  them, such as a full soft drink can. Weigh the plain wood block and the object used on top of the block. Record the combined weight in grams and Newtons. b. Place the ramp board you provided horizontally on a table. If necessary tape it down at the ends with masking tape to keep if from sliding. c. Begin the experiment by setting the block and its weight on the board with its largest surface in contact with the surface of the board. Connect the block’s hook to the 500-g spring scale. d. Using the spring scale, slowly pull the block lengthwise along the horizontal board. When the block is moving with constant speed, note the force indicated on the scale and record. This is the approximate kinetic or sliding frictional force. Repeat two more times. e. While carefully watching the spring scale, start the block from rest. When the block just starts to move, note the force indicated on the scale and record. You should notice that this requires more force. This force is  approximately equal to the static frictional force. Repeat two more times. Determining coefficient of static friction using an inclined surface a. Place the plain block with its largest surface in contact on the board while the board is lying flat. b. Slowly raise one end of the board until the block just breaks away and starts to slide down. Be very careful to move the plane slowly and smoothly so as to get a precise value of the angle with the horizontal at which the block just breaks away. This is the limiting angle of repose ÃŽ ¸ max. Measure it with a protractor (see photo that follows for an alternate way of measuring the angle) and record the result. You may also want to measure the base and the height of the triangle formed by the board, the support, and the floor or table. The height divided by the length of the base equals the coefficient of static friction. Remember: c. Perform two more trials. These trials should be independent. This means that in each case the plane should be returned to the horizontal, the block placed on it, and the plane carefully moved up until the limiting angle of repose is reached. DATA TABLE 6 Height Base Length ÃŽ ¸ max  µs Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average Calculations 1. Using the mass of the block and the average force of kinetic friction from Data Table 1, calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction from Equation 1: 2. Using the mass of the block and the average force of kinetic friction from Data Table 2, calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction for the wood block sliding on its side. Record your result and see how it compares with the value of  µkobtained from Data Table 1. 3. From the data in Data Table 3, 4 & 5 compute the coefficient of static friction,  µsfor, the glass surface on wood, the sandpapered surface on wood, and wood on carpet, etc from each of your three trials. Calculate an average value of  µs.Record your results in your own data sheets. 4.  From the data obtained in Data Table 6 calculate  µsfor wood on wood from each of your three trials. 5.  Calculate an average value of  µs. Record your result on the data sheet. Questions A. How does the coefficient of static friction compare with the coefficient of kinetic friction for the same surfaces and areas? B. Why is it important to reduce friction during the operation of machinery? C. How does grease or oil affect the coefficient of friction?

Political Compromise

The political compromise during the period of 1820 to 1860 was unable to reduce sectional tension during this time period. According to Tom Meltzer and Jean H. Bennett, in their book Cracking the Ap U.s. History Exam, â€Å"The new period of expansion resulted in a national debate over slavery, as would every period of expansion to follow until the Civil War resolved the slavery question. † The Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, and†¦ were just a quick fix for the inevitable to come, the civil war. The political compromises of this time period were not able to meet their final goal, primarily because of misunderstandings The Missouri compromise, which admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, helped balance the U. S. Senate. The compromise was one of the first measures anticipating the Civil War, It was helpful for a small period of time before more states were created and tipped off the balance. The Missouri compromise wasn’t effective in reducing sectional tension, because it was only effective for a small period of time before sectional struggle began over the new territories that were being settled. Another example of a quick fix to reduce sectional tension is the Compromise of 1850. California created a state constitution that prohibited slavery, which of course caused the South to oppose bid for statehood. The Compromise of 1850 admitted California as a free state, enacted a fugitive slave law, and created the territories of Utah and New Mexico, it also let them decide if they wanted to be a free or slave state.

How did the recent financial crisis affect Financial Markets and Essay

How did the recent financial crisis affect Financial Markets and institutions - Essay Example The difference in interest rates has led to different problems and difficulties in the international financial market. Further on, another difficulty was caused by a greater demand for U.S. $ by oil importers thus leading to the U.S. $ currency devaluation, the yen Japan, the euro and the pound sterling. Therefore, market and capital markets suffered great losses and it was necessary to find a way out of this situation. At the beginning of financial crisis, the American society still had a hope that future elections of the President would facilitate it. Unfortunately, the impact of financial crisis of 2008-2009 still echoes in the world’s economy. There is a tendency to reduce the difference between the interest rates. Moreover, â€Å"the securities market has been greatly influenced by the devaluation of the assets of certain companies established by banks for loan securitization† (Bloom & Schirm, 2010). In the period between 2004 and 2007 the size of loans has increas ed from 60% in revenues to 90% respectively (Financial Crisis: Let's Get to the Root Cause, 2008). Furthermore, a poor management system of the loan system has also negatively influenced on the financial system. In order to facilitate the complexities occurred in the world’s bank and financial system it is possible to work in two main directions: â€Å"continue economic accounting real, if only the existing level now being maintained; and involve as many as possible capital in the economy† (Kuttner, 2009). In order to renovate a proper functioning of investment banks, such as Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch and American International Group (AIG), the U.S. government invested $85 billion in this sphere (Trussel & Rose, 2009). Unfortunately, banks of the country have fallen apart like a house of cards. Almost nineteen banks failed till November 2008 (Swagel, 2009). Therefore, a public confidence in bank system has gradually failed. A further interaction between internatio nal capital markets and financial institutions was full of complexities and the reasons for that should be found on political and economical levels. Political reasons for financial crisis are evident. These are political constraints. A complicated relationship between the congressional leadership and President Bush and his White House staff made 2007 an unconstructive year from the perspective of economic policy, although, ironically, it had the effect of making possible the rapid enactment of the early-2008 stimulus: Democratic leaders by then appeared to be eager to demonstrate that they could govern effectively† (Jackson, 2010). Administration’s deliberations were not facilitated even in time of financial crisis worsening. On the governmental level financial crisis could be solved in terms of mortgage refinance programs and investments in banking and job-creating systems (Kawa, Vanbever, 2010). Therefore, the influence of a global financial crisis has greatly affecte d on money and capital markets. Deposit and non deposit taking institutions have also been influenced greatly by financial crisis. State commercial banks have the main goal to increase profits and satisfy the needs of public by providing deposit options. Unfortunately, firms and individuals have decreased the level of deposits â€Å"

Inspiring Policy on Disease- and Emergency-Related Issues Essay

Inspiring Policy on Disease- and Emergency-Related Issues - Essay Example cy is on the process of being revised as the policy network grapple with the issue of whether routine mammograms for women starts at the age of 40 or 50. This particular issue is dependent on the movements of the current health care reform being undertaken in America. In examining the trajectory of breast cancer policymaking beginning in the 1980s towards the 1990s, one can identify the glaring fact that a single policy could take years to be made. This is demonstrated in Lillquist’s (2001) study on breast cancer policymaking, which mapped out the timeline of the most important legislative achievement to date, The Breast and Cervical Cancer Mortality Prevention Act. Legislative hearings on this policy began in 1984 and this stage in the process took six years before a bill was finally introduced and passed into law in 1990 (Lillquist, p.20). The period taken by the process was, as a matter of fact, short in comparison with the conventional lawmaking since breast cancer as a health problem is considered a special case with special characteristics. According to Lillquist, the breast cancer issue became an amalgamation of environmental, racial, aging and feminist issues (p.24). These characteristics entailed the political leverage that helped expedite policymaking. It must be noted that during the 1980s, the policymakers are lukewarm to the issue, treating breast cancer as part of a wider health policy. Prior position during this period did not consider services as the government’s responsibility (Lillquist, p.19). Kasper and Ferguson pointed out that even when breast cancer has been identified as a social issue since the 1970s, public policy responses were minimal (p.18). But in the course of the legislative process, this changed because of the advocacies of the National Breast Cancer Coalition (NBCC). This group, which was composed of cancer survivors, worked tirelessly to raise the level of public awareness on the issue and get people involved. By the time a

Criminal Justice, Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Criminal Justice, - Essay Example This is because the criminal justice system of the United States acts as a benchmark of the most developed justice system in the world making it a basic eternal model. The crime control model works efficiently within the criminal justice system by punishing crime and in the process serving as the best tool to detour the occurrence of criminal behavior. It is important to note that the due process model and the crime control model are two frameworks within the criminal justice system under conflict throughout the world for many years. Proponents of the due process model hold that nobody can deprive of life of any individual, freedom, and material wealth including property disregarding the legal processes as well as safeguards. The due process framework requires the criminal justice system to protect the rights of nay person charged with crime. However, the crime control framework for enforcing law bases on the assumption of complete reliability of facts collected by police officers and handles people arrested by the disciplined forces as guilty. In this case, the arrestees are guilty and proceed to the courts to prove their innocence. On the other hand, the due process considers the arrestees innocent and assigns the criminal justice system the responsibility of proving that they are guilty. This marks the first difference between the due process and the crime control model. The two frameworks present the most competing models within the criminal justice system and result in the ever-increasing tension bringing d isharmony and conflict presently observable within the same system. The models aim at challenging crime but insist on issuing the most appropriate justice to both the law enforcers and the arrestees. Professor Herbert, designed the due process model to make sure that people arrested and charged with crime have their rights protected and receive fair trial as well as judgment. The model insists on the

Reading assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reading - Assignment Example Raustilia and Sprigman discount statistical provisions by proponents of Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and Protect IP Act (PIPA) who are poignant that the US economy forfeits at least 200 billion dollars and 750,000 US job vacancies every year. Raustilia and Sprigman argue that there is no lucidity in these figures, since the job vacancy figures double the number of employees who got enrolled in the filming industry in 2010. Raustilia and Sprigman also quote Tim Lee who argues that it is not unusual for statistics to be punctuated with estimations, double and triple counting. The same duo continues that at times, piracy can substitute for legitimate transactions, and may therefore not be bad. The same also contend that piracy may also trigger the saving of more money, and the economic relevance of increased savings may not be sidestepped (Raustilia and Sprigman, 1). However, on a personal standpoint, the opinions that Raustilia and Sprigman advance seem less plausible, logically and e thically sound, as shall be seen in the discussion that ensue forthwith. In the first place, piracy in itself is a crime, being a form of copyright infringement. This is because, like any other form of piracy, P2P file sharing program infringes copyright laws by copying and distributing a recording company and an artiste’s work without the consent of both. In this light, the Copyright Act of 1909 exists and is in force, even though more strictness is attributed to written work. Conversely, had piracy been attributed as a less injurious crime or as a tolerable and beneficial undertaking as Raustilia and Sprigman opine, then there would be no need of forming institutions and agencies which guard against piracy. Of particular concern is the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) as a powerful lobby group which represents the recording industry and favors stricter laws and heavier punishments for those who pirate music. RIAA is poignant that since 2002, music revenue ha s plummeted by 7% as the sales of CDs receded from 882 million to 803 million units. RIAA is also specific that the information immediately above showed that three times as more CDs were shared via P2P than the CDs that had been bought. It is obvious that this trend must have cost music producers and artistes. Furthermore, Gorski points out that doing away with the provisions and enforcement of Title 17 of Sections 501 and 506 of the United States Code is bound to create a very confused and lawless situation which may override the gains that Raustilia and Sprigman taut as reasons that legitimize music piracy. Title 17 of Sections 501 and 506 of the United States Code states that it is illegal to create copies of another person’s creative work. It is at this point that gives the federal law the mandate to protect artistes from unlawful and unauthorized reproduction, distribution and transmission of copyrighted material. It is against this backdrop that several people and compa nies have in times past been subjected to legal suits because of music piracy through the use of P2P file sharing. The same has also led to five year jail terms and an imposition of fines totaling 250,000 US dollars (Gorski, 161). As if all the above is not enough, the No Electronic Theft Law (NET Act) prescribes copyright violations which

The Autistic Student Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Autistic Student - Research Paper Example Individuals who suffer from autism cannot survive without a caregiver in the society and face difficulties when entering a relationship. All these above mentioned factors clearly show that autism is a disorder which needs to be cured to have a better society. For this purpose several cures have been proposed which involve early intervention programs for the children. The question now arises if the cure for autism by intervention and diagnosis is successful or not. In my view governments should take an equal stand in the early intervention programs for the autistic children (Wray et al 2005; Dorothea 2009). An autistic student would possibly be exhibiting many signs of autism which should be noticed by the teacher or the parent to confirm the diagnosis of the disorder. An autistic student may suffer from many problems while studying in the class which can easily be identified. As autistic children have developmental problems they tend to suffer from social problems within the school. Social deficits in the child can be noticed easily as this student cannot make an eye contact with anyone. The student faces problems when socializing with other students and teachers. It can also be noticed that this student does not have friends within the school because of the fear that he may have for socializing with others. ... It is seen that the autistic student cannot speak properly and blabbers at many instances with the teacher. The student cannot interact properly and would use improper gestures to exhibit his feelings. The student does not share his personal feelings nor has the courage to stand for something that he has not done. Even when the students are asked to participate in the class activities it is seen that the autistic student finds it very difficult to participate in them. The student is known to face many problems in the class because of which he has difficulties in studying with other students (Dorothea 2009; Wray et al 2005). The autistic student also faces difficulty when adjusting to specific routines in the school. For example when the timetable of the students is changed from one class to the other the autistic student takes long to get used to the new routine. In simple words these autistic children do not easily adapt to new routines and rituals. The student is also obsessed with certain objects that he sees in his environment. For example some of the autistic students are obsessed with the pencil that they have. At many instances it can be noticed that these autistic students are picking up their pencil and examining it. These characteristics help in confirming that the student is suffering from autism. Lastly the autistic student also displays repetitive behaviors which can be seen in different actions. In the classroom the student is seen to stack pencils and rubbers in an arranged manner. Moreover he often moves while sitting in the same fashion which can be noticed by the teacher. These five characteristics are commonly seen in autistic students which should be noticed by the teacher so that the student can be diagnosed

The Scottish Parliament Building Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Scottish Parliament Building - Essay Example This starts with creating a terms of reference or clear specification of the project. This is followed by the actual plan in this of the building process starting with assessing materials needed, cost of the project, to the actual laying the foundation until the last detail is achieved. The plan is then communicated to every member in the team. Teamwork is at the core of any successful construction project or any other project. Every supervisor in the project should have the plan in details and examine it at length and to modify where need be. The implementation of the project follows the planning; controlling is an ongoing process till the end. Follow up should be done after closing the project. The role of project management has been outlined as giving a clear guideline to follow in undertaking any project; it also helps the implementing to manage time and resources in an effective manner (Hans, 2010.34). The elements focused on in this essay are managing the scope of the project, time, costs, labour, the quality of the project, the risks involved, the integration process, the communication throughout the project and finally the procurement process. The Scottish parliament building was estimated at a very high cost from the initial assessment. The argument was behind the democratic approach towards the design. The cost so said at $600 million had to be justified by the overall result of the construction. The site selection feasibility study was carried out to assess the environment and the traffic of the location. The construction management was chosen as the procurement vehicle. This was a good managerial choice since it offered speed advantages towards progress of the construction. It had a disadvantage towards the uncertainty of price. This would have been determined only after the last contract had been leased out. Project procurement management was not thoroughly given thought and a comprehensive strategy document for procurement was not prepared. A syst ematic risk analysis was not done towards the chosen route of procurement indicating poor managerial practices in the whole project. The procurement process of the materials specified by the contractor was rested upon the contractor chosen. This would have jeopardized the overall quality of the procurement management process. Management of cost: - The initial estimated costs rose from the start of the project. Once the tenders were issued out, the contractor who came in with design projected an increase in costs estimate of the design (Jeremy and Philips, 2006, 100). The risk had risen from 80% to 100%. This was due to lack of a proper strategy ab-initio. The construction costs rose to 115 million pounds i.e. 86% a figure way above the budget. Value engineer was called upon to assess these figures and came up with a decrease of 25% which was adopted. This was explained towards construction delays and design process. The project was carried out towards achieving the quality of the fi nished work hence details of the design had to be altered. The materials so chosen for the construction took a better part of the whole cost estimates. This was in light of achieving the quality intended. A thorough costing should have been carried out and good decision made from the first debates in the year 1998. The delay to start the project took over two years and the value of money was rising. The cost objective was not at the end of the project since

Behavioural difficulties with childern (in classroom) Essay

Behavioural difficulties with childern (in classroom) - Essay Example It seems clear that good behavior is easy to maintain if the school and other teachers in the school establish a consistent approach to misbehavior (McCormack 2006). I agree with the statement completely and have found that if teachers get together to establish certain ground rules, the overall discipline level of the entire school can be raised significantly. In my own experience I have tried to ensure that the discipline maintained in the class is equal to the level maintained by other top teachers. Of course in certain cases discipline issues can means a lot more than simple misbehavior of willfulness. McCarthy (2006) suggests that certain discipline problems could come about if the child appears to be emotionally disturbed. While this may certainly be the case, in my experience I have not come across a situation which demands the use of a facility like the Multi Agency Center mentioned in the article. However, it is good to know that such facilities exist and I certainly plan to make use of these if the need arises. I did face a situation where it came to my mind that a child was facing some emotional problems but when I talked to the child in a one on one session, we were able to come to an agreement whereby she promised to improve her behavior and I saw a marked change in her since that. The use of technology has also been recommended to keep children occupied and reduce discipline issues (Pendleton 2006). However, in my opinion this takes the focus away from the real issue. While technology is useful, I find that simply talking to the children about discipline issues and explaining how the collective experience for them is reduced in quality through the misbehavior of some children is more effective. This technique is also recommended for the improvement in the outlook of the entire school (Phillips, 2006). Finally, in certain extreme situations, a teacher may be forced to use restrictive physical means to intervene with pupils

Fascism in Italy Essay Example for Free

Fascism in Italy Essay A revolutionary system which totally transformed the political, economic, and social structure of the country. To what extent would you agree with this assessment of Fascism in Italy? In 1932, Giovanni Gentile aided Benito Mussolini in writing a definition of Fascism, to be entered in the Italian Encyclopaedia. They claimed that the Fascist State organises the nation, but leaves a sufficient margin of liberty to the individual; the latter is deprived of all useless and possibly harmful freedom, but retains what is essential; the deciding power in this question cannot be the individual, but the State alone. [1] Certainly this could seemingly be a definition of a revolutionary system when compared to the liberalism of the coalition government, but to decide whether or not Fascism succeeded in being so, or merely showing an outward appearance, as Mussolini appeared content with on many issues, one must look separately at the politics, economy, and society of Italy, before, during and after the Fascist regime. Before October 1922, when Mussolini became Prime Minister, Italy had been administered by a series of coalition governments, due to the introduction of proportional representation after the unification of 1870. The weak and indecisive king, Victor Emmanuel III, had felt that Mussolini and the Fascist Party posed no threat to him or the country, as they, at that time, held only 35 of the 535 seats in the Italian Chamber of Deputies. There was no sudden change in the system of government and state institutions; Mussolini was merely the Prime Minister of a coalition cabinet in which only four out of twelve ministers were fascists and he had to move cautiously. [2] However, in July 1923 the Acerbo Law was passed, allowing the party with the majority of votes1 to attain 2/3 of the parliamentary seats. By a mixture of violence and intimidation, and aided by hopeless divisions amongst his opponents[4] Mussolini achieved a majority in the April 1924 elections, thereby securing his position. Not long after the elections, the Matteotti crisis2 led to widespread disaffection and left Mussolini vulnerable, having been forced to dismiss numerous members of his entourage. [5] The Aventine Secession saw the opposition parties set up a rival parliament in the hope that the king would dismiss Mussolini from office, however, Victor Emmanuel feared that this would leave the way open for Communism to overthrow him, and so he allowed the Fascists to continue in power. With all opposition gone, Mussolini had no problems in securing the power to rule by decree as to a growing number of left and right-wing critics, democratic politics was a rotten game divorced from Italys real needs.[6] But his dreams of a completely totalitarian state could not truly come to fruition, as he stated himself, the Fascist Revolution halted at the throne. And so it would appear that it was a catalogue of misdeeds by the government and the king that gave Mussolini his one party state, rather than the might of Fascism. Although that one-party state was certainly a revolutionary ideal when put in comparison to the previous method of coalition government, by April 1943 the Italian Cab inet, under Badoglio, included Liberals, Christian Democrats, Socialists, Communists and others.[24] After the Second World War, Italy reverted to a true republic, in that Victor Emmanuel abdicated in May 1946, and his son, Umbertos reign lasted only 1 month before the monarchy was abolished. This could not be attributed, however, to Fascism as much as to Victor Emmanuels mishandling of the parliamentary system and the fact that his career demonstrates that he never really came to terms with democracy and that in his few moments of meaningful political choice he preferred to deal with the representatives of savage reaction rather than concede an inch to the demands of the people.[7] The after effects of World War I had left Italy, as just about everywhere else, in a state of poverty. But, the Fascist Administration promised a better future for the Italian people. An impressive public works programme was designed, among other things, to reduce unemployment.[8] However, although the cost of living was falling because of the depression, wages fell more than prices, so that workers suffered a fall in real wages. Particularly galling for the industrial workers was that they had no means of protesting since strikes were illegal and the unions weak.[9] Therefore the workers were just as disgruntled as they had ever been. Economic self-sufficiency (autarky) was vitally important in developing the greatness of the state; the government must therefore direct the economic life of the country. [11] To this end Mussolini encouraged the farmers in the Battle for wheat.3 Unfortunately, this merely meant that agriculture remained inefficient and farm labourers the poorest class in the state. The attempt at self-sufficiency was a dismal failure. [12] Industry was greatly encouraged with government subsidies, ensuring the appearance of a Corporate State, which helped to increase iron and steel production by 100% by 1930 and to double the production of hydro-electric power by 1937, but more could have been done as Belgium had increased to a much higher level. Also, little had been done to remedy her basic shortages of raw materials coal and oil.[10] At the same time, another of Mussolinis ploys to show a strong Italy to the world, was to value the Lira too high on the world markets. 90 Lira could be purchased for à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1 in 1926, although a rate of 150 to the pound would have been more advisable for Italys failing economy. The outcome was that exports became too expensive and therefore orders dwindled, especially in the textile industry, and so many factories were forced into a three day working week. Even when The Wall Street Crash caused further hardships, Mussolini still refused to devalue the Lira until 1936. Further harm to the economy was caused by the Fascists love of war. As Mussolini said, peace is absurd: fascism does not believe in it.[13] The Corfu Incident4 of 1923, the War in Abyssinia in 1935-365 and Italys intervention in the Spanish Civil War were all an unnecessary drain on the Italian purse. Indeed, Mussolini said of the latter, they were bled white. Of course the lives of the Italian people were effected by more than just the countrys economy. Adults who opposed Mussolini were dealt with harshly. However, the children were the Fascists of the future and Mussolini took a keen interest in the states education system and the youth organisations that existed in Italy.[17] New school text books were written to glorify the Fascist system[18] with emphasis on the fact that Mussolini was the only man who could lead Italy back to greatness. [19] The boys were encouraged to join after school organisations: Sons of the She Wolf for ages 4-8, Balilla for ages 8-14, and Avantguardista for 14-18 year olds. Whilst taking part in these clubs they were taught that fighting for them was a natural extension of the normal male lifestyle[20] By the time they were old enough for the Balilla, these children were being groomed for the army with military-style exercises and imitation guns. Mussolini said of these groups: I am preparing the young to a fight for life, but also for the nation.[21] Yet it seems that, as between 30 and 40% of the youths never joined these organisations, they were not a success in bringing the children of Italy into the Fascist fold. By the same token, Mussolini knew that to have a great army in the future Italian women must be encouraged to have more children. Therefore in 1927 he launched the Battle for Births. Unmarried men were penalised with higher taxes and families were encouraged to be of five children or more with tax benefits. Mussolini wanted Italy to have a population of 60 million by 1950. In 1920, it stood at 37 million so his target was a tall order. However, the Battle for Births was a failure. Though the population grew as people were living longer due to better medical care, the birth rate actually went down between 1927 and 1934.[22] The Wall Street Crash causing the depression in America also meant that less Italians were emigrating so the figures, most likely, looked much better than they really were. But, probably the most lasting and worthwhile achievement[16] of Mussolinis rule was the Lateran Treaty with Pope Pius XI6 in which the Church and the State were reunited after years of hostility. To refer to Fascism as a revolutionary system is probably too strong a definition, but to argue that it transformed Italy in any way, in anything other than the short term, would have to be judged as false. Mussolini was certainly guilty of using the ambiguity of the term to his best advantage at all times. But many of the successes and failures of the Italian economical, social and political arenas could be said to be because of the previous governments, the king, the wars or the overall state of Europe at the time. Certainly, in Italy, after World War II, Fascism disappeared and most of its work along with it; the only achievements remaining at the end of the war were the agreement with the church and the public works, and even they, as Elizabeth Wiskemann suggests, could just as well have been achieved by a democratic government.[23] word count = 1529 1 Provided that the party held at least 25% of the votes.[3] 2 Giacomo Matteotti, head of the Italian Socialist Party, was found murdered after speaking out against Mussolini in the parliament. Amerigo Dumini, a member of Mussolinis special force (Ceka)was found guilty of the murder, but the killing was believed, whether correctly or not, to have been at the order of Mussolini himself. 3 Battle for Wheat = by 1935 wheat imports had been cut by 75% 4 Diplomatic Emergency in 1923. Greece and Albania quarrelled over boundaries and the League of Nations set up a commission to make a determination. At this time 4 Italians, including General Tellini, were killed on the Greek side of the border. Mussolini sent an ultimatum to Greeces government to pay 50 million Lira in compensation and to execute the assassins. As the assassins could not be identified, Greece could not comply and so Italian forces bombarded and occupied the Greek island of Corfu in August 1923. Greece was forced to pay reparations and apologise, by the Conference of Ambassadors and Italy left Corfu on 27th September 1923.[14] 5 An armed conflict that resulted in Ethiopias subjection to Italian rule [15] 6 The Papacy had been hostile to the Italian Government ever since losing sovereignty over the Vatican City in the 1870 unification. Mussolini recognised the Vatican City as a sovereign state, paid compensation to the church and made the Roman Catholic faith the official state religion with compulsory religious education in schools.

The Marginalized Groups of Immigrants in Canada

The Marginalized Groups of Immigrants in Canada Imoghena Usman   Immigration to Canada may seem like a dream for many foreigners, since it arguably provides many opportunities. However, immigration causes difficulties in regards to settlement and integration into the country. Certain groups of immigrants face particular struggles when they arrive in Canada and try to navigate new and different social systems. They face obstacles in that institutions such as the government do not fully support them with the potential issues they face. This essay will argue that the experiences of illegal immigrants, migrant women and the school-aged immigrant children are full of hardships in which the Canadian government has created problems that have prevented them from fully integrating into the country. In the chapter, Illegalized Migrants, Charity-Ann Hannan examines the particular struggles that illegal immigrants have had to face. It can be argued that illegal immigrants face an increased set of challenges than legal immigrants. In Canada, the majority of illegal immigrants obtain this status when they overstay their visa or permit (Hannan 144-145). Without legal documentation, this leads to a number of issues they cannot escape. They are not able to fend for themselves from other institutions that try to hurt them. They are marginalized, as they are able to be exploited by their employers and cannot access government services (Hanson, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 145). Immigration becomes a hardship since illegal immigrants are used for their work and no one wants does not help them. In fact, it seems that they are being punished for being illegal, when they could be trying to live better lives for themselves. The chapter gives a history of the migration of illegalized migrants whic h highlighted cases of Canadas hesitance of bringing immigrants into the country. For example, in 1869, Canada passed its Immigration Act that did not allow criminals in the country (Makarenko, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 146), and employers hired immigrants to work for cheap with no chance for unionization (Avery, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 146-147). Without any way to come together and protect themselves, illegal immigrants arguably could not live good lives nor defend themselves from being exploited for their work. Immigration consisted of hard work without interests being fulfilled. The Chinese were specifically targeted as well. In 1885, the Chinese Immigration Act required them to pay an entrance fee, but British Columbia pushed the provincial government to deny entry, so the 1923 Immigration Act was passed to officially bar entry (Avery, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 147-148). By barring the Chinese from entering the country, the Canadian government demonstrated that it was opposed to immigration by certain groups of foreigners. By going after a specific ethnic community, this policy proves that immigration had a bad image because it was based on discriminatory practices. In 1967, Canada shifted the Immigration Acts focus onto skills (Hannan 148), and the 1976 version created classes for immigrants to enter through (Avery 1995; Immigration Act 1976-1977, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 148), which was to create the image that Canada was making a more fair and equitable immigration system, (Hannan 150). However, the government also implemented the TFW program, where if they stay past their visas, they become illegal immigrants (Hennerbry, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 150). The Canadian government may have tried to improve their image in creating these legislations that encouraged immigration, but they also created legislation that could be believed to have continued their legacy of discrimination against immigrants. This has continued into recent times as well; the 2002 Immi gration and Refugee Act restricted immigrant investors and sponsorship of family (Hannan 150). Immigrants continue to be restricted from being allowed into Canada, and this legislation portrays how the government is still prejudiced against immigration from specific categories. Temporary foreign workers of low skill work for four years and are forced back to their country of origin, but when the first period ended in 2015, it was predicted that there would be more illegal immigrants (Alboim and Kohl, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 150). This arguably caused the Canadian governments efforts to restrict entry to the country to be undermined by having temporary migrants becoming illegal immigrants, since the text indicated there will be an increase of illegal immigrants due to policy (Hannan 156). Canada illustrates a negative attitude towards certain groups of immigrants, in which their policies demonstrate that they are not wanted. This image is also seen through the work of migrants. In t he labour market, there is a secondary segment of work that has low wages, few benefits, poor working conditions, high labour turnover, and little chance of advancement, (Doeringer and Piore, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 153), which is where many migrants work in to address labour demand (Piore, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 153). This is seen with illegal immigrants, as they earn less then legalized migrants (Davila and Pagan; Mehta, Theodore, Mora and Wade; Phillips and Massey; Rivera-Batiz; Youn, Woods, Zhou and Hardigree, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 154). Illegal immigrants are in risk because they are put in a financially difficult position and do not have the resources to get out of it. They basically serve to work without any benefits, showing that Canadian immigration for this particular group possibly does not lead to any good outcomes. There are also other factors that divides them even more. Men earn higher wages than women (Cobb-Clark and Koussoduji 1999; Mehta et al. 2002; Rivera-B atiz 1999, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 154), as well as those who were employed in the manufacturing industry (Mehta et al. 2002, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 154). According to these examples, illegal immigration is based on division in which they have to fight for survival and rights. However, employers are the ones who benefit as illegal immigrants do not have protection so they cannot unionize (Morales, cited in Hannan 2015, p. 156), demonstrating that many illegal immigrants are to fend for themselves. In Chapter 10, Leslie Nichols and Vappu Tyyskà ¤ write about the experiences of migrant women. In Canadas colonized history, white female immigrants were portrayed as co-settlers with their male counterparts, (Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 250). There was number of cases in Canadian history where women of colour were targeted in racialized discrimination. One case was black Caribbean women, who worked as domestics after British and Finnish domestics came between 1900-1930 (Das Gupta, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 251). They only had temporary contracts, and had to go back home, the opposite experience of European women (Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 251). The blatant racism showed how non-white females never got a chance to prove their worth and to live a better life in a new country. The temporary contracts prove that there was a negative bias towards immigrant women because they did not want women of colour around for a long period of time; they were unwanted. In terms of economics, imm igrant women continue to struggle. This can be seen through the way they entered into Canada as, during 201257.6% of women entered through the family class, (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2012, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 253). It can be inferred from the statistics that many women do not have the financial resources to provide for themselves. This is also demonstrated with the facts that less than half of immigrant women were employed (Statistics Canada 2011, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 254), and the most recent arrivals earned a median income of $15, 590 (Statistics Canada 2013, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 255). Women could be financially struggling because there are no jobs that are stable for them, so they need to be reliant on others. For example, men are the breadwinners of the family (Nichols and Tyyskà ¤, 255). They are also unable to learn necessary skills in order to live fully, such as not being able to attend language classes th rough the Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada because childcare is limited to very young children (Pothier, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 256). It demonstrates that female immigrants are unable to get the skills needed because the government do not provide better alternatives/programs for them. They will remain financially dependent on others. Women also face challenges from within their families as well. With their spouses, if a woman becomes employed, the males would lose their breadwinner status and lose confidence (Ali and Kilbride, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 257), which causes them to become violent towards the family (Tyyskà ¤ 2005, 2008, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 257). When immigrant women do get jobs, it causes conflict with their spouses that can lead to a dangerous experience. This further causes them to become marginalized, and may deter them from finding work. Younger women face pressure to conform into cultural norms in ter ms of sex which they must pass on to their children (Handa; Tyyskà ¤, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 261), and are encouraged into practices such as arranged marriage (Ghimire and Axinn, cited in Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 2015, p. 261). Immigrant women are being suppressed by their families because they cannot integrate into Canadian norms, even if they want to, and lack the choice to make their own decisions. This may be due to patriarchal hierarchies in cultural groups (Nichols and Tyyskà ¤ 257). If males are dominant, then women lack the leadership to grow into their own person. This portrays an image of Canadian immigration where women are pushed into sexist roles, and cannot work to make better lives for themselves because the government and other factors continue to stop them. In Chapter 11, Mehrunnisa Ahmad Ali examines child immigrants and their schooling. A variety of immigrant children of colour experienced challenges in terms of race when entering into Canada in its history. One example is when black migrants moved from the United States to Canada (Joshee and Johnson, cited in Ali 2015, p. 275), black children were segregated from their white peers in legislated separate schools due to parental fear of their influence (Ali 275). It shows that black children would not be able to settle into the country without being ostracized by their communities. Since the schools were legislated (Ali 275), this proves that the government did not consider the wellbeing of immigrant children of colour; they were presumably left to fend for themselves. Another example was when a law was passed forcing Aboriginals to attend school, leading to forcible removal to residential schools where their culture was taken away from them (Ali 276). Immigration for children would be tough and not welcome by many. It proves that the discrimination of immigrants in Canada was not limited by age. This segregation has continued on into present day, where immigrants move to areas with a common culture and/or affordable, and those in low-income areas send their children to schools where there are many immigrant children (Ali 277). Immigrants are separated from permanent residents due to their situations and lack of similarities. This portrays a divide between the two groups. Immigrant children tend to struggle more in school; since they do not have the grasp of English, they fall behind in class and are put into non-academic streams which lead to lower status jobs then post-secondary education (Ali 278). Immigrant children will grow up to struggle into their adulthood, showing that they will most likely end up in difficult situations. It shows that Canadian immigration for children will pose more challenges for their futures. The government does not help them as wel l, as there is a lack of funding for English as a Second Language Programs and provincial benefits that only last for a short period of time (Ali 278-279). The significance of this is that the government has not fully learned from history by not providing the resources necessary to help them settle into their new lives. Immigrant children stand to suffer from the lack of services and the government does not seem to support them. The schools do not seem to look at their experiences and lifestyles as well; for example, the curriculum focuses on Canadian heroes and not how they were immigrants (Ali 2009, cited in Ali 2015, p. 281). Immigrant children are also segregated between themselves. Those who live in areas with poverty and high crime go to schools that focus more on dropout rates then academic achievement, while those who come into the country fluent in English or French can enter school more easily, but can face bullying if they have an accent (Ali 285-286). Depending on the ch ilds circumstances, there is always a chance of failure. Immigration, according to those three groups experiences, is basically a hardship. From past to present, there have been numerous examples where migrants of those categories struggle to make it into their new lives. From the evidence, it can be determined that there needs to be more done in order to make immigrants more comfortable in Canada. If they cannot feel like they are part of a community and have access to resources that can help them know the country more, then it would be difficult for them to feel like they are at home. In Immigration Policy, Settlement Service, and Immigrant Mothers in Neoliberal Canada: A Feminist Analysis, Yidan Zhu describes that not so many immigration settlement organizations provide parenting or mothering courses/workshops for mothers, (148). Zhu proves that if certain resources are not provided, then one would infer that immigrants would never be able to learn important information that could help them live better. In all three cases, there has bee n a division between immigrants and Canadians in which it could almost be categorized as a segregation. This division has cause conflicts between the two groups. For example, Canadian teachers want immigrant parents to raise their children with Canadian values (Ali 2012, cited in Ali 2015, p. 283). There should be a push to immigrants and permanent residents to work together, such as a call for global citizen education (Richardson, cited in Ali 2015, p. 280). If not, these issues will continue, such as how immigrant children face alienation and no sense of belonging in Canada due to discrimination (Omidvar Richmond, cited in Oxman-Martinez et al, p. 377). Immigrants should be able to feel like they are at home where they feel safe, instead of being separated from the rest of Canadians for being who they are. Finally, the Canadian government should be pushed in making more of an active effort in assuring immigrants of these groups are not marginalized. In all three cases, the govern ment contributed in the mistreatment and/or obstacles they have faced. Both individuals and communities must push to make them realize that immigrants need help instead of constant battles that they do not have the power to face. For example, Zhu explains that while the state provides immigration resources for women, their own experiences of mothering are considered unimportant and the state is made to look responsible for them as the parents (152). There needs to be more communication between the government and immigrants with push from the numerous immigrant communities and other resources because if not, then there will continue to be misguided actions that hurt the community. In conclusion, immigrants are blocked from reaching their full potential when they arrive in Canada. Illegal immigrants face exploitation, women are devalued and placed under sexist norms and children struggle to integrate into a school system that is not always welcoming. Meanwhile, the government continues to block any chance they have in succeeding in their new country, while outliers also affect their newfound status. Overall, there needs to be more change in order to allow these groups of immigrants to thrive in an unfamiliar world. Works Cited Ali, Mehrunnisa Ahmad. The Schooling of Children of Immigrants. Immigrant Experiences in North America: Understanding Settlement and Intergration, edited by Harald Bauder and John Shields, Canadian Scholars Press Inc., 2015, pp. 273-291. Hannan, Charity-Ann. Illegalized Migrants. Immigrant Experiences in North America: Understanding Settlement and Intergration, edited by Harald Bauder and John Shields, Canadian Scholars Press Inc., 2015, pp. 144-163. Nichols, Leslie and Tyyskà ¤, Vappu. Immigrant Women in Canada and the United States. Immigrant Experiences in North America: Understanding Settlement and Intergration, edited by Harald Bauder and John Shields, Canadian Scholars Press Inc., 2015, pp. 248-272. Oxman-Martinez, Jacqueline, et al. Perceived Ethnic Discrimination and Social Exclusion: Newcomer Immigrant Children in Canada. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 82.3 (2012): 376-88. Web. 26 Mar. 2017. Zhu, Yidan. Immigration Policy, Settlement Service, and Immigrant Mothers in Neoliberal Canada: A Feminist Analysis. Canadian Ethnic Studies, vol. 48, no. 2, 2016, pp. 143-156, Canadian Business Current Affairs Database; Political Science Database; ProQuest Sociology Collection, http://ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1815479346?accountid=13631.